Regional variation of pronunciation in the south-west of England

p> I seed some of ‘em that never walked a “mile in their “lives, where the form /?m/ is unstressed. (Such unstressed examples are much rarer than stressed examples in positions where Standard English would show a demonstrative pronoun simply because ‘those’ is normally stressed in
Standard English.)

We should note finally, however, that this analysis of the material does not in any way explain the absence of a plural pronoun /рejz/, any more than the linking of /рat/ with /it/ precludes the existence of a singular demonstrative pronoun /рi:z/. The non-existence of /рejz/ as a pronoun seems best considered as an accidental gap in the corpus.” (№18, p.20 )

3.6 Verbs.

- In the south-western dialects in the singular and in the plural in

Present Indefinite the ending ‘-s’ or ‘-es’ is used, if the Subject is expressed as a noun. e.g. Boys as wants more mun ask.

The other ehaps works hard.

- In Devonshire ‘-th’ [р] is added to verbs in the plural in Present

Indefinite.

- The form ‘am’ (’m) of the verb ‘to be’ is used after the personal pronouns: e.g. We (wem = we are) (Somersetshire) you, they

- After the words ‘if’, ‘when’, ‘until’, ‘after’ Future Indefinite sometimes used.

- The Perfect form in affirmative sentences, in which the Subject is expressed as a personal pronoun, is usually built without the auxiliary verb ‘have’: e.g. We done it.

I seen him.

They been and taken it.

- The negation in the south-western dialects is expressed with the adding of the negative particle ‘not’ in the form ‘-na’ to the verb. e.g. comesna (comes not) winna (= will not) sanna (= shall not) canna (= cannot) maunna (= must not) sudna (= should not) dinna (= do not) binna (= be not) haena (= have not) daurna (= dare not)

- It is typical to the south-western dialects to use too many nigotiations in the same phrase: e.g. I yin’t seen nobody nowheres.

I don’t want to have nothing at all to say to you.

I didn’t mean no harm.

Ye’ll better jist nae detain me nae langer.

- The negative and interrogative forms of the modal verbs are built with the help of the auxiliary verb ‘do’. e.g. He did not ought to do it.

You do not ought to hear it.

- Some verbs which are regular in the Standard language become irregular in the south-western dialects: e.g. dive - dave, help - holp

- Sometimes the ending ‘-ed’ is added to some irregular verbs in the

Past Simple: e.g. bear - borned, begin - begunned, break - broked, climb - clombed,

dig - dugged, dive - doved, drive - droved, fall - felled, find

- funded, fly - flewed, give - gaved, grip - grapped, hang - hunged, help - holped, hold - helded, know - knewed, rise - rosed, see -

sawed, shake - shooked, shear - shored, sing - sunged, sink - sunked, spin - spunned, spring - sprunged, steal - stoled, strive - stroved, swear - swored, swim - swammed, take - tooked, tear - tored, wear - wored, weave - woved, write - wroted.

- But some irregular verbs in the Past Simple Tense are used as regular: e.g. begin - beginned (Western Som., Dev.) bite - bited (W. Som.) blow - blowed (Dev.) drink - drinked (W. Som.) drive - drived (Dev.) fall - falled (W. Som., Dev.) fight - fighted (W. Som.) fall - falled (Som., Dev.) go - gade (Dev.) grow - growed (W. Som.) hang - hanged (W. Som.) lose - losed (W. Som., Dev.) ring - ringed (W. Som.) speak - speaked (Som.) spring - springed (W. Som., Dev.)
- Many verbs form the Past Participle with the help of the ending ‘-n’. e.g. call - callen catch - catchen come - comen

- In some cases in the Past Participle a vowel in the root is changed, and the suffix is not added. e.g. catch - [k t?] hit - [a:t] lead - [la:d]

- In the south-western dialects intransitive verbs have the ending ‘- y’ [?].

- In Western Somersetshire before the infinitive in the function of the adverbial modifier of purpose ‘for’ is used: e.g. Hast gotten a bit for mend it with? (= Have you got anything to mend it with?)

3.7 Adverbs.

- In the south-western dialects an adjective is used instead of the adverb. e.g. You might easy fall.

- To build the comparative degree ‘far’ is used instead of ‘further’;

‘laster’ instead of ‘more lately’.

- The suparative degree: ‘farest’; ‘lastest’; ‘likerest’; ‘rathest’. a) The adverbs of place: abeigh [?b?x] - ‘at some distance’ abune, aboon - ‘above’ ablow - ‘under’ ben, benn - ‘inside’ outbye [utba?] - ‘outside’ aboot - ‘around’ hine, hine awa - ‘far’ ewest - ‘near’ b) The adverbs of the mode of action: hoo, foo - ‘how’ weel - ‘great’ richt - ‘right’ ither - ‘yet’ sae - ‘so’ c) The adverbs of degree: much e.g. How are you today? - Not much, thank you.

‘much’ is also used in the meaning of ‘wonderfully’ e.g. It is much you boys can’t let alone they there ducks.

It was much he hadn’t a been a killed. rising

‘rising’ is often used in the meaning of ‘nearly’ e.g. How old is the boy? - He’s rising five.
- ‘fell’, ‘unco’, ‘gey’, ‘huge’, ‘fu’, ‘rael’ are used in the meaning of
‘very’.
- ower, owre [aur] - ‘too’
- maist - ‘nearly’
- clean - ‘at all’
- that - ‘so’
- feckly - ‘in many cases’
- freely - ‘fully’
- naarhan, nighhan - ‘nearly’
- han, fair - ‘at all’ d) Adverbs of time: whan, fan - ‘when’ belive, belyve - ‘now’ yinst - ‘at once’ neist - ‘then’ fernyear - ‘last year’ afore (= before) e.g. Us can wait avore you be ready, sir. next - ‘in some time’ e.g. next day = the day after tomorrow while = till, if e.g. You’ll never make any progress while you listen to me.

You have to wait while Saturday.

3.8 Transitivity and intransivity in the dialects of South-West

England.

One of the most important aspects of studying south-western English is dialect syntax. So, the article by Jean-Marc Gachelin can give us much information about transitivity and intransitivity in the dialects of South-
West England.

“Wakelin has pointed out that ‘syntax is an unwieldy subject which dialectologists have fought shy of’. This brushing aside of dialect syntax is regrettable because the study of grammatical variation can shed light on the workings of any language, and thereby enrich general linguistics. The present chapter deals with an area of dialect syntax - transitivity in south-west of England dialects - and attempts to characterize and explain, synchronically and diachronically, its salient features.

We prefer the moderation of Kilby, who simply admits that the notion of direct object (DO) ‘is not at all transparent in its usage’. The problem, therefore, should be not so much to discard but rather to improve our notions of transitivity and intransitivity. In this regard, the dialects of South-west England are important and interesting.

1. A description of transitivity and intransitivity in the dialects of
South-west England.

When compared with the corresponding standard language, any geographical variety may be characterized by three possibilities:

(a) identity; (b) archaism (due to slower evolution); and (c) innovation. Interestingly enough, it is not uncommon in syntax for (b) and
(c) to combine if a given dialect draws extensively on a secondary aspect of an older usage. This is true of two features which are highly characteristic of the South-west and completely absent in contemporary
Standard English.

1.1 Infinitive + y

One of these characteristics is mentioned by Wakelin, the optional addition of the -y ending to the infinitive of any real intransitive verb or any transitive verb not followed by a DO, namely object-deleting verbs
(ODVs) and ergatives. The use of this ending is not highlighted in the
Survey of English Dialects (SED, Orton and Wakelin). It is only indirectly, when reading about relative pronouns, that we come upon There iddn (= isn’t) many (who) can sheary now, recorded in Devon (Orton and Wakelin).
However, Widen gives the following examples heard in Dorset: farmy, flickery, hoopy (‘to call’), hidy, milky, panky (‘to pant’), rooty (talking of a pig), whiny. Three of these verbs are strictly intransitive (ftickery, panky, whiny), the others being ODVs. Wright also mentions this characteristic, chiefly in connection with Devon, Somerset and Dorset.

In the last century, Barnes made use of the -y ending in his Dorset poems, both when the infinitive appears after to: reдky = ‘rake’ skimmy drashy = ‘thresh’ reely and after a modal (as in the example from the SED):

Mid (= may) happy housen smoky round/The church.

The cat veil zick an’ woulden mousy.

But infin.+y can also be found after do (auxiliary), which in South- west dialects is more than a more ‘signal of verbality’, serving as a tense- marker as well as a person-marker (do everywhere except for dost, 2nd pers. sing.). Instead of being emphatic, this do can express the progressive aspect or more often the durative-habitual (= imperfective) aspect, exactly like the imperfect of Romance languages. Here are a few examples culled from Barnes’s poems:

Our merry sheдpes did jumpy.

When I do pitchy, ‘tis my pride (meaning of the verb, cf pitch-fork).

How gaя the paths be where we do strolly.
Besides ODVs and intransitive verbs, there is also an ergative: doors did slammy.
In the imperative, infin. -y only appears with a negative: don’t sobby!

The optional use of the -y ending is an advantage in dialect poetry for metre or rhyme:

Vor thine wull peck, an’ mine wull grubby (rhyming with snubby)
And this ending probably accounts for a phonetic peculiarity of South-west dialects, namely the apocope of to arguy (the former dialect pronunciation of to argue), to carry and to empty, reduced to to arg, to car and to empt.

In the grammatical part of his Glossary of the Dorset Dialect, Barnes insists on the aspectual connection between do and infin.+y:

“Belonging to this use of the free infinitive y-ended verbs, is another kindred one, the showing of a repetition or habit of doing as ‘How the dog do jumpy’, i-e keep jumping. ‘The child do like to whippy’, amuse himself with whipping. ‘Idle chap, he’ll do nothen but vishy, (spend his time in fishing), if you do leвve en alwone’. ‘He do markety’, he usually attends market.”

Barnes also quotes a work by Jennings in which this South-west feature was also described:

“Another peculiarity is that of attaching to many of the common verbs in the infinitive mode as well as to some other parts of different conjugations, the letter -y. Thus it is very common to say ‘I can’t sewy’,
I can’t nursy’, ‘he can’t reapy’, ‘he can’t sawy’, as well as ‘to sewy, to nursy, to reapy, to sawy’, etc; but never, I think, without an auxiliary verb, or the sign of the infinitive to.”

Barnes claimed, too, that the collocation of infin. +y and the DO was unthinkable: ‘We may say, “Can ye zewy?” but never “Wull ye zewy up theдse zкam?” “Wull ye zew up theдse zкam” would be good Dorset.”

Elworthy also mentions the opposition heard in Somerset between I do dig the garden and Every day, I do diggy for three hours (quoted by
Jespersen and by Rogers). Concerning the so-called ‘free infinitive’,
Wiltshire-born Rogers comments that ‘it is little heard now, but was common in the last century’, which tallies with the lack of examples in the SED.
(This point is also confirmed by Itialainen) Rogers is quite surprised to read of a science-fiction play (BBC, 15 March 1978) entitled ‘Stargazy in
Zummerland’, describing a future world in which the population was divided between industrial and agricultural workers, the latter probably using some form of south-western speech, following a time-honoured stage tradition already perceptible in King Lear (disguised as a rustic, Edgar speaks broad
Somerset).

To sum up, after to, do (auxiliary), or a modal, the formula of the
‘free infinitive’ is intr. V > infin. + -y/0 where ‘intr.’ implies genuine intransitives, ODVs and even ergatives. As a dialect-marker, -y is now on the wane, being gradually replaced by 0 due to contact with Standard English.

1.2 Of + DO

The other typical feature of south-western dialects is not mentioned by Wakelin, although it stands out much more clearly in the SED data. This is the optional use of o’/ov (occasionally on) between a transitive verb and its DO. Here are some of the many examples. Stripping the feathers off a dead chicken (Orton and Wakelin) is called: pickin/pluckin ov it (Brk-loc. 3); trippin o’ en (= it) (D-loc. 6); pickin o’ en (Do-loc. 3); pluckin(g) on en - (W-loc. 9; Sx-loc. 2).

Catching fish, especially trout, with one’s hand (Orton and Wakelin) is called: ticklin o’/ov em (= them) (So-loc. 13; W-loc. 2, 8; D-loc. 2, 7, 8; Do- loc. 2-5; Ha-loc. 4); gropin o’/ov em (D-loc. 4, 6); ticklin on em (W-loc. 3, 4; Ha-loc. 6; Sx-loc. 3); tickle o’ em (Do-loc. l) (note the absence of -in(g)).

The confusion between of and on is frequent in dialects, but although on may occur where of is expected, the reverse is impossible. The occasional use of on instead of of is therefore unimportant. What really matters is the occurrence of of, o’ or ov between a transitive verb and the
DO. The presence of the -in(g) ending should also attract our attention: it occurs in all the examples except tickle o’ em, which is exceptional since, when the SED informants used an infinitive in their answers, their syntax was usually identical with that of Standard English, ie without of occurring before the DO: glad to see you, (he wants to) hide it (Orton and
Wakelin).

Following Jespersen, Lyons makes a distinction between real transitives (/ hit you: action > goal) and verbs which are only syntactically transitives (/ hear you: goal

The use of of as an operator between a transitive verb and its DO was strangely enough never described by Barnes, and is casually dismissed as an
‘otiose of’ by the authors of the SED, even though nothing can really be
‘otiose’ in any language system. Rogers points out that ‘Much more widely found formerly, it is now confined to sentences where the pronouns en, it and em are the objects.’ This is obvious in the SED materials, as, incidentally, it is in these lines by Barnes:

To work all day a-meдken haя/Or pitchen o’t.

Nevertheless, even if his usage is in conformity with present syntax, it is important to add that, when Barnes was alive, o/ov could precede any
DO (a-meдken ov haя would equally have been possible). What should also be noted in his poetry is the extremely rare occurrence of o’/ov after a transitive verb with no -en (= -ing) ending, which, as we just saw, is still very rare in modern speech:

Zoo I don’t mind o’ leдven it to-morrow.

Zoo I don’t mind o’ leдven o’t to-morrow.

The second line shows a twofold occurrence of o’ after two transitive verbs, one with and one without -en.

This -en ending can be a marker of a verbal noun, a gerund or a present participle (as part of a progressive aspect form or on its own), and o’ may follow in each case.

VERBAL NOUN

My own a-decken ov my own (‘my own way of dressing my darling’).

This is the same usage as in Standard English he doesn’t like my driving of his car.

GERUND

That wer vor hetten o’n (‘that was for hitting him’).

. . . little chance/O’ catchen o’n.

I be never the better vor zee-en o’ you.

The addition of o’ to a gerund is optional: Vor grinden any corn vor bread is similar to Standard English.

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

As I wer readen ov a stwone (about a headstone).
Rogers gives two examples of the progressive aspect:

I be stackin’ on ‘em up.

I were a-peeling of the potatoes (with a different spelling).

PRESENT PARTICIPLE ON ITS OWN

To vind me stannen in the cwold, / A-keepen up o’ Chris’mas.

After any present participle, the use of o’ is also optional:

Where vo’k be out a-meдken haя.

The general formula is thus: trans. V > V + o’/0 which can also be read as

MV (main verb) > trans. V + o’/0 + DO.
Here, o’ stands for o’ (the most common form), ov and even on. In modem usage, the DO, which could be a noun or noun phrase in Barnes’s day and age, appears from the SED materials to be restricted to personal pronouns.
For modern dialects, the formula thus reads:

MV > trans. V + o’/0 + pers. pron.

The o’ is here a transitivity operator which, exactly like an accusative ending in a language with case declensions, disappears in the passive. Consequently, the phenomenon under discussion here has to be distinguished from that of prepositional verbs, which require the retention of the preposition in the passive:

We have thought of all the possible snags. >

All the possible snags have been thought of.
The use of o’ as a transitivity operator in active declaratives is also optional, which represents another basic difference from prepositional verbs.

Exactly the same opposition, interestingly enough, applies in south- western dialects also:

[1] He is (a-) eдten o’ ceдkes > What is he (a-) eдten?

[2] He is (a-) dreдmen o’ceдkes > What is he (a-) dreдmen ov?

What remains a preposition in [1] and [2] works as the link between a transitive verb and its DO. The compulsory deletion of the operator o’ in questions relating to the DO demonstrates the importance here of the word order (V + o’ + DO), as does also the similar triggering of deletion by passives.

Though now used in a more restricted way, ie before personal pronouns only, this syntactic feature is better preserved in the modern dialects than the
-y ending of intransitive verbs, but, in so far as it is only optional, it is easy to detect the growing influence of Standard English.

2. Diachrony as an explanation of these features.

Although the above description has not been purely synchronic, since it cites differences in usage between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it is actually only by looking back at even earlier stages of the language that we can gain any clear insights into why the dialects have developed in this way.

Both Widen and Wakelin remind us that the originally strictly morphological -y ending has since developed into a syntactic feature. It is a survival of the Middle English infinitive ending -ie(n), traceable to the
-ian suffix of the second class of Old English weak verbs (OE milcian > ME milkie(n) > south-west dial. milky). Subsequently, -y has been analogically extended to other types of verbs in south-west dialects under certain syntactic conditions: in the absence of any DO, through sheer impossibility
(intransitive verb) or due to the speaker’s choice (ODV or ergative). The only survival of medieval usage is the impossibility of a verb form like milky being anything other than an infinitive. Note that this cannot be labelled an archaism, since the standard language has never demonstrated this particular syntactic specialization.

So far no explanation seems to have been advanced for the origin of
‘otiose of’, and yet it is fairly easy to resort to diachrony in order to explain this syntactic feature. Let us start, however, with contemporary
Standard English:

[3] They sat, singing a shanty. (present participle on its own)

[4] They are singing a shanty. (progressive aspect)

[5] I like them/their singing a shanty. (gerund)

[6] I like their singing of a shanty. (verbal noun)
Here [5] and [6] are considered nominalizations from a synchronic point of view. As far as [4] is concerned, Barnes reminds his readers that the OE nominalization ic waes on hunlunge (‘I was in the process of hunting’, cf
Aelfric’s Colloquim: fui in. venatione) is the source of modern / was hunting, via an older structure I was (a-) hunting which is preserved in many dialects, the optional verbal prefix a- being what remains of the preposition on.

The nominal nature of V-ing is still well established in the verbal noun (with the use of of in particular), and it is here that the starting- point of a chain reaction lies. Hybrid structures (verbal nouns/gerunds) appeared as early as Middle English, as in bi puttyng forth of whom so it were (1386 Petition of Mercers) and similar gerunds followed by of were still a possibility in Elizabethan
English:

Rend not my heart for naming of my Christ (Marlowe, Doctor Faustus) together with verbal nouns not followed by any of:

... as the putting him clean out of his humour (B. Jonson, Every Man out of his Humour).

Having been extended from the verbal noun to the gerund, of also eventually spread to the progressive aspect in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, at a time when the V-ing + of sequence became very widespread in Standard English:

Are you crossing of yourself? (Marlowe, Doctor Faustus).

He is hearing of a cause (Shakespeare, Measure for Measure).

She is taking of her last farewell (Bunyan, The Pilgim’s Progress).

However, what is definitely an archaism in Standard English has been preserved in south-western dialects, which have gone even further and also added an optional o’ to the present participle used on its own (ie other than in the progressive aspect). Moreover, there is even a tendency, as we have seen, to use o’ after a transitive verb without the -en (= -ing) ending. This tendency, which remains slight, represents the ultimate point of a chain reaction that can be portrayed as follows:

Use of o’ in the environment following:

(A) (B) (C)

(D) verbal noun > gerund > be + V-ing > pres. part. > V

V-ing

(A) evolution from Middle English to the Renaissance;

(B) evolution typical of English in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries;

(C) evolution typical of south-western dialects;

(D) marginal tendency in south-western dialects.

The dialect usage is more than a mere syntactic archaism: not only have the south-western dialects preserved stages (A) and (B); they are also highly innovative in stages (C) and (D).” (№18, p.218)

4. Vocabulary.

Devonshire (Dev)

Somersetshire (Som)

Wiltshire (Wil)

Cornwall (Cor)

A

Abroad - adj растерянный, незнающий, как поступить; попавший впросак, совершивший ошибку; разваренный, расплавленный (о пище): The potatoes are abroad. The sugar is gone abroad.

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