Years of UN peacekeeping efforts

p> Military peacekeepers are the most visible, but not the only, UN peace presence in the field. UN envoys and other civilian personnel are engaged in diplomacy, human rights monitoring and other peace efforts in scores of regions threatened or afflicted by fighting often in the most difficult situations.

4.2 UN and Human Rights

The Charter goals of justice and equal rights, for individuals and for peoples, have been pursued by the UN from its early days.

As one of its first tasks, the UN formulated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a historic proclamation of the basic rights and freedoms to which all men and women are entitled - the right to life, liberty and nationality, to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, to work, to be educated, to take part in government, and many other rights. The General
Assembly adopted the Declaration on 10 December 1948, a date commemorated every year as Human Rights Day.

Two International Covenants adopted in 1966 - one on economic, social and cultural rights and the other on civil and political rights - have expanded and made legally binding the rights set forth in the Declaration.
These three documents constitute the International Bill of Human Rights, a standard and a goal for all countries and peoples.

The UN has also put in place mechanisms to further human rights. The
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights coordinates all the human rights activities of the UN, seeks to prevent violations, investigates abuses and works with Governments in resolving violations.

The UN Commission on Human Rights is the only intergovernmental body that conducts public meetings on human rights abuses brought to its attention and reviews the human rights performance of all Member States.
Special reporters of the Commission monitor the human rights problems in specific countries.

UN missions are monitoring the human rights situation in Haiti,
Guatemala and Eastern Slovenia (Croatia).

The Security Council has established international tribunals to try persons accused of war crimes during the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda. The tribunals have indicted several individuals and brought a number of defendants to trial.

Self-determination and independence.

A fundamental right - self-determination, or the right of peoples to govern themselves - was a goal when the Charter was signed. Today, it has become a reality in most of the lands formerly under colonial rule.

In 1960, the General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, in which it proclaimed the need to bring colonialism to a speedy end. Since then, some 60 former colonial Territories, inhabited by more than 80 million people, have attained independence and joined the UN as sovereign Members.
Today, 17 Non-Self-Governing Territories remain, inhabited by some 2 million people. The Assembly has set the goal of ending colonialism by the year 2000, declaring the 1990s the International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism.

Namibia's independence

The UN helped bring about the independence of Namibia, achieved in
1990. The General Assembly in 1966 revoked South Africa's Mandate to administer the territory - a decision South Africa rejected. Complex negotiations led in 1989 to the implementation of the 1978 UN plan for the independence of Namibia. The UN Transition Assistance Group was deployed throughout Namibia to monitor the withdrawal of South African troops, the registration of voters, and the 1989 elections, which led to the installation of the first independent Government and to Namibia's independence.

Election assistance

To further democratization, the UN has also observed elections, at
Government request, in sovereign member states: in Nicaragua and Haiti
(1990), Angola (1992), El Salvador, South Africa and Mozambique (1994), as well as the referendum on the independence of Eritrea (1993). In other instances - such as Malawi, Lesotho and Armenia - the UN has coordinated international observers provided by member states.

Observers typically follow the preparation and holding of the election; on election day, they are deployed to polling stations throughout the country, observe voting and vote counting, and issue a final statement on the conduct of the election.

Since 1992, the UN has provided technical assistance in the preparation and holding of elections to over 70 countries. Such assistance, which may involve coordination and support, advisory services and short- term observation, is instrumental in building the capacity of countries to run their elections in the future.

Apartheid.

Apartheid applies to all aspects of life. Socially, blacks had to live apart from the other races. Politically, they could not vote. Economically, they could work only in the lowest paying occupations.

The UN helped to bring an end in 1994 to South Africa's apartheid
(racial segregation) system. For more than three decades, the UN carried out a sustained campaign against apartheid. The campaign, which ranged from an arms embargo to a convention against segregated sports events, helped to bring about a democratically elected Government in 1994, through elections in which, for the first time, all South Africans could vote. The UN
Observer Mission in South Africa assisted in the transition and observed the election. With the installation of a non-racial and democratic government, the apartheid system came to an end.

International law.

The UN has made major contributions towards expanding the rule of law among nations through its development and codification of international law. The International Court of Justice has assisted countries in solving important legal disputes and has issued advisory opinions on UN activities.

The UN has initiated hundreds of conventions and treaties covering virtually all areas of international law - from international trade to environmental protection. Action has been particularly strong in human rights law.

For instance, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women is the main international legal instrument to further women's equality. The Convention against Illicit Traffic in
Narcotic Drugs is the key international treaty against drug trafficking.
The Convention on the Law of the Sea seeks to ensure equitable access by all countries to the riches of the oceans, protect them from pollution and facilitate freedom of navigation and research.

4.3 UN Humanitarian Assistance to Developing Countries

When countries are stricken by war, famine or natural disaster, the UN helps provide humanitarian aid. Part of this aid is in the form of direct assistance from the UN operational agencies and programs: The Office of the
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the UN (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the
World Food Program (WFP), the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the UN
Development Program (UNDP).

The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is responsible for the protection and assistance of over 26 million people around the world who have fled war or persecution, seeking at the same time durable solutions to their plight. In early 1997, UNHCR's major operations were in the Great Lakes region of Africa, with over 1.4 million people in need; the former Yugoslavia (over 2 million people); and western Asia (some
2.3 million Afghan refugees).

All UN emergency relief is coordinated by the UN Emergency Relief
Coordinator, who heads the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs.

In 1996, the UN raised $1.3 billion for emergency assistance to over
22 million people around the world.

5. DISARMAMENT

5.1 UN Activity in the Sphere of Disarmament

Halting the arms race and reducing and eventually eliminating all weapons of war are major concerns of the UN. The UN has been a permanent forum for disarmament negotiations, making recommendations and initiating studies. Negotiations have been held bilaterally and through international bodies such as the Conference on Disarmament, which meets regularly in
Geneva.

The General Assembly adopted in 1996 the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, a landmark agreement that aims at banning all nuclear-weapon tests.

In a major step in advancing non-proliferation, States parties in 1995 extended indefinitely the 1970 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons (NPT). Under this Treaty, nuclear-weapon States agree not to provide nuclear weapons to other countries and to pursue nuclear disarmament; non-nuclear weapon States agree not to acquire nuclear weapons. Concluded under UN auspices, the Treaty has been ratified by over
170 countries.

Other treaties have been concluded to prohibit the development, production and stockpiling of chemical weapons (1992) and bacteriological weapons (1972); reduce conventional armed forces in Europe (1990); ban nuclear weapons from the seabed and ocean floor (1971) and outer space
(1967); and ban or restrict other classes of weapons

The United Nations proposed another disarmament agreement in 1972. The
100 nations that signed this Seabed Agreement agreed never to place nuclear weapons on the ocean floor. Both the Soviet Union and the United States were among the signers.

In 1996, States parties strengthened a Protocol restricting the use, production and transfer of landmines – “silent killers” that slay or maim some 20,000 people each year. According to the UN, there are some 110 million landmines in over 70 countries, and 2 million new landmines are laid every year.

Mine Clearance

The subject of mine clearance is one of critical importance that has recently taken center stage in the forum of pressing world issues. As regards the work of the United Nations, the process of demining is fundamental to the UN's ability to deliver programs effectively in war-torn countries or post-war environments, whether such undertakings be related to peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance or rehabilitation.

Over the past seven years, the need for mine clearance has grown significantly in a number of regions around the world. As a result, the UN is increasingly called upon to operate mine clearance programs in areas that are completely infested with landmines and unexploded ordnance (UXO).
Consequently, prior to any large deployment of personnel or equipment to a given area, the UN must prepare for a safe working environment by initiating preliminary mine clearance activities in localized areas. Once this has been completed, a broader operation can be accommodated to conduct mine clearance activities on a more comprehensive scale.

The clearance of areas for use by a supported nation is undertaken only when specially mandated by the Security Council. It is standard procedure for the UN to not only performs mine clearance but also to assist a supported nation in the development of its own sustainable clearance capacity. The UN program may include such topics as mine awareness, mine marking, mine survey, mine clearance as well as unexploded ordinance disposal. Additionally, the program's overall efforts may go beyond mine- specific issues to cover related areas, such as management and logistics, training and support.

The UN may vary its approach to each situation as there are currently no standardized templates or universal procedures established for mine clearance activities world-wide.

Mine Clearance in the United Nations is presently divided into two areas of responsibility :

. which plans and advises on mine clearing activities carried out under United Nations auspices as well as maintains contact with

Governments and organizations that participate in or contribute to these activities.

. which serves as the focal point for coordinating all humanitarian mine clearance and related activities.

These two units work together to ensure a seamless approach to United
Nations Mine Clearance Activities.

5.2 The Problem of Iraqi Military Arsenal

One of the last UN operations on eliminating all weapons was connected with the investigation of Iraqi arsenal, as there were some data proving that Iraq possesses very dangerous weapons that might be lethal to the mankind.

The nation of Iraq is relatively young; the country achieved independence in 1932. Since then, Iraq has been almost perpetually at war with its neighbors. Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990, leading to the
1991 Persian Gulf War. Iraq has been under international sanctions since the invasion and the United Nations refused to lift them until it is convinced that Iraq has eliminated its weapons of mass destruction. The
United States and Britain threatened air strikes in 1998 over Iraq's refusal to allow UN weapons inspectors' free access to all sites. The
United States and its allies patrol a no-fly zone over northern Iraq to protect Kurds from attack and in the south to protect Shiite Muslims.

Almost all countries are concerned with Iraq's unwillingness to allow
UN inspectors investigate its military arsenal. For example Swedish diplomat Rolf Ekeus - who led the UN investigations from the cease-fire through the summer of 1997 and headed to Baghdad for talks, said that they had declared everything. Iraq stated that no documents existed in Iraq because they had been destroyed. That was exploded totally, because Iraq itself admitted in writing even that it had been lying. Cheating systematically from when we started in 1991 up until this very date in
August of 1995.

5.2.1 Iraq/Kuwait conflict

To understand the essence of the conflict it is necessary to descry the reasons of the conflict. Shortly after the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq’s military dictator, Saddam Hussein, accused Kuwait of taking an unfair share of oil revenues. In August 1990 he made the claim that Kuwait was a part of
Iraq and ordered his armies to invade and occupy Kuwait.

The Iraqi invasion alarmed President Bush and other world leaders for three reasons. First, it was an act of aggression by a strong nation against a weaker nation. (Iraq in 1990 had the fourth largest military force in the world.) Second, the taking of Kuwait opened the way to an
Iraqi conquest of the world’s largest oil-producing nation, Saudi Arabia.
Third, the combination of Iraq’s military power and aggressive actions would allow it to dominate the other countries of the Middle East.

To prevent further aggression, President Bush ordered 200,000 troops to Saudi Arabia, followed later by an additional 300,000. “We have drawn a line in the sand,” said the president, as he announced a defensive effort called Operation Desert Shield. US troops were joined by other forces from a UN-supported coalition of 28 nations including Great Britain, France,
Italy, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and Egypt.

Members of the UN Security Council, including both the United States and the Soviet Union, voted for a series of resolution concerning Iraq’s aggression. One UN resolution demanded Iraq’s unconditional withdrawal from
Kuwait. Other resolutions placed an international embargo on trade with
Iraq and authorized UN members to use force if Iraqi troops did not leave
Kuwait by January 15, 1991. As the January deadline neared, members of
Congress debated whether or not to authorize the president to send US troops into combat in the Persian Gulf. Both houses voted in favor of the war resolution. [ ]

The Gulf War had far greater significance to the emerging post-cold war world than simply reversing Iraqi aggression and restoring Kuwait. In international terms, we tried to establish a model for the use of force.
First and foremost was the principle that aggression cannot pay. If we dealt properly with Iraq, that should go a long way toward dissuading future would-be aggressors. We also believed that the US should not go it alone, that a multilateral approach was better. [ ]

5.2.2. UNIKOM Establishment

On 3 April 1991, the Security Council adopted resolution 687 (1991), which set detailed conditions for a cease-fire and established the machinery for ensuring implementation of those conditions. By resolution
687 (1991) the Council established a demilitarized zone along the border between Iraq and Kuwait, to be monitored by a UN observer unit.

On 9 April 1991, the Security Council adopted resolution 689 (1991) which approved the Secretary General's plan for the establishment of the
United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM). The UNIKOM advance party arrived in the area on April 1991. UNIKOM was established to monitor the Khawr 'Abd Allah and the DMZ set up along the border between Iraq and
Kuwait, and to observe any hostile or potentially hostile action mounted from the territory of one State to the other.

The mandate was expanded in February 1993 by Security Council resolution 806 (1993), with the addition of an infantry battalion, to: take physical action to prevent, or redress, small scale violations of the DMZ and of the boundary between Iraq and Kuwait; and problems arising from the presence of Iraqi installations and citizens and their assets in the DMZ on the Kuwaiti side of the border. Since the demarcation of the Iraq-Kuwait boundary in May 1993 by the United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Boundary Demarcation
Commission, and the relocation of Iraqi citizens found to be on the Kuwaiti side of the border back into Iraq, the situation along the DMZ has been calm.

From the Security Council on down, nearly every UN diplomat, along with officials from many other countries, will not stop repeating their mantra: They want full and unfettered access to all sites in Iraq where the inspection team suspects weapons of mass destruction are hidden. And that is precisely what Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein has refused to do, for the seven years that the inspection regime has been in force.

President Clinton has managed to put the United States on both sides of the diplomatic fence, repeatedly insisting America is making every effort to avoid violence, but is ready to use U.S. aircraft and cruise missiles to pound Iraq into submission if necessary.

The United States has assembled an armada in the Persian Gulf consisting of 30,000 soldiers, sailors, pilots and Marines, 20 warships, and more than 400 attack and support aircraft. Although it doesn’t compare to the huge multinational force that went to war with Iraq in 1991, neither does the coalition.

So far, only Britain and Canada have joined the United States in sending forces to the area. Most of the nations that supported the attack in 1991 seem to feel that a military solution is too unsubtle a tool for such a delicate diplomatic goal, and that the Iraqi people, already suffering under UN sanctions, do not need to endure another baptism by fire.

The demonstrations - never spontaneous and always state-organized - quickly became tedious affairs, with the same posters, the same chants, the same stunts.

What's more, the UN Security Council more than doubled the amount of oil Iraq can sell over six months in order to buy food, medicine and other goods for its people suffering from devastating sanctions imposed when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. At that time to put pressure on Iraqi forces to withdraw, the United States and the UN voted to place an embargo on the purchase of Iraqi oil. The resulting drop in oil supplies quickly led to higher prices at gas stations all across the country.

The vote was unanimous in the 15-member body. The new program—which raises the permitted oil revenue from $2 billion to $5.256 billion—does not go into effect until Annan evaluates and approves an Iraqi plan for how the goods should be distributed.

Iraq has expressed irritation over the plan and delayed the previous versions of it, citing what it called infringements on its sovereignty. UN officials insist on the right to strictly monitor the aid given under the plan to make sure it reaches those who need it.

U.S. opinion polls show support for attacks on Iraq remains strong, hovering in the 60 percent range, but a disastrous “town hall” meeting in
Ohio on Wednesday suggested it was equally fragile.

State Department spokesman James P. Rubin said families were not being ordered to leave Israel and Kuwait, but that they were being allowed to do so over concerns they may consider it prudent.

Iraqis have in the past threatened to attack both Israel and Kuwait in the event that Iraq is attacked. The United States this weekend is beefing up forces in Kuwait, and Israel has been urgently distributing gas masks.

“The probability of Iraq resorting to the use of chemical or biological weapons is remote, but it cannot be excluded,” Rubin said.

U.S. officials acknowledge that any attack on Iraq could hit hard at civilians there.

5.2.3. Blitzkrieg1

The events that took place December 16, 1998 shocked the mankind. US and British forces launched a “strong, sustained” series of airstrikes against Iraq early Thursday, targeting military and security installations throughout the country. Pentagon[1] sources said about 200 cruise missiles were fired from ships and manned fighter bombers in the first wave of what will be an “open-ended’ attack, designed to degrade Iraq’s ability to produce nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. Clinton accused Hussein of failing to live up to his commitment to allow unrestricted access to UN weapons inspectors. This is how chief CNN International Correspondent
Christiane Amanpour reported from a rooftop in downtown Baghdad: “An orange plume of smoke wafted over the city after one of the loudest bursts.”
Allied missiles struck more than 50 separate targets” during the first wave of bombing that began overnight on Wednesday.

The military strikes – which came at night – followed a roughly 14- month period during which Baghdad officials periodically said they would no longer cooperate with the weapons inspectors. During that time, Baghdad also repeatedly demanded that crippling international sanctions, imposed after Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait prior to the Gulf War, be lifted. The most recent escalation in the ongoing weapons standoff came in early November.
At that time, Western powers threatened military strikes against Iraq. The threat was removed on November 14, when Baghdad agreed to cooperate fully with the weapons inspectors. But, US and British officials warned Baghdad that future airstrikes could come without warning should Iraqi leadership again refuse to cooperate with UNSCOM. To back up their threat, Western powers left in place the military might they had positioned in the Persian
Gulf, within striking distance of Iraq. It was that military weaponry that was used on Thursday to conduct the strikes against Iraq. A stray missile from the allied attack on Iraq crashed into a southwestern Iranian border city Khorramshahr causing no casualties but prompting a strong diplomatic protest from Tehran.

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. Henry Shelton said the sites hit during the first bombing wave included weapons of mass destruction and barracks belonging to the Iraqi Republican Guard. US and
British officials have said they will continue bombing Baghdad until they have achieved their goal which is not to destabilize the regime but to decrease his capacity to threaten his neighbours.

World community’s response was not unanimous. Many Russian politicians expressed their negative attitude to the bombing. Boris Yeltzin met with
Evgeni Primakov, Russian Prime-minister, Nikolai Bordyuzha, Security
Council secretary and Anatoly Kvashnin, General Staff commander where he claimed that Russia would demand conducting the UN Security Council summit to consider the situation in Iraq. Egor Stroyev, Federation Council chairman said that the US and British bombardment of Iraq is a strike not on Iraq but on public opinion and above all on UNO. Russian Foreign
Minister Igor Ivanov expressed his point of view saying that military action ceasing would allow to renew the political process of Iraqi settlement. Moreover, he said that the report was made at the time when
Iraqi leaders approved of their readiness to collaborate with UNSCOM.
Russian Ambassador Yuli Vorontsov will return to Moscow for
“consultations”.

The only country that fully backed American and British bombing of
Iraq was Japan. Keidzo Obutti, the Prime Minister of this country has already received acknowledgement from the US president. According to his opinion Iraq didn’t fully cooperate with UN officials. Japan that is connected with the USA by economic and military union as well as strategic partnership always supports everything US does.

Tony Blair, the British prime minister is expected to be backed by the majority of deputies to the House of Commons. He said the attack, named
Operation Desert Fox, was necessary because Hussein never intended to abide by his pledge to give unconditional access to UN inspectors trying to determine if Iraq has dismantled its biological, chemical and nuclear weapons programs. From morning some protesters-natives from Arab countries
– Syria, Pakistan and Iraq – held demonstrations in Trafalgar Square and near prime minister’s residence situated in Downing street, 10. British people also fully agree with their government decision. Russian position is discussed by mass media. Moscow is said to have too little assets to seriously affect the situation. Today “Times” wrote: “Washington made it clear that the arguments of the country whose economic situation fully depends on financial assistance of Western countries won’t stop him.

Paris is reserved in its comments connected with the Iraqi bombing.
France always adhered to diplomatic crisis regulation.

NATO Ministers of Defense have gathered in Brussels to discuss their position regarding the situation in the Persian Gulf. Nobody have expressed their wish to participate in military actions.

The UN Security Council held a special debate Wednesday evening on the military action. Diplomats said the meeting of the 15-nation council would enable members to voice their views on the crisis, but no council action was expected in the form of a resolution or other decision. UN Secretary
General Kofi Annan expressed regret the standoff had not been resolved diplomatically. Richard Butler, UNSCOM chairman, ordered UNSCOM staff out of Baghdad. The entire staff was evacuated before dawn on Wednesday.

Iraqi officials said at least 25 people had died and 75 were wounded in the Iraqi capital alone during two days of airstrikes.

CONCLUSION

The UNO, established to replace the existing League of Nations, faces very difficult situation in connection with Iraqi bombardment. The beginning of effective Iraqi resistance came with a rapidity which surprised us all, and we were perhaps psychologically unprepared for the sudden transition from peacemaking to fighting. Some say that Clinton wanted to delay the floor debate and vote on whether he should be impeached over his actions stemming from an affair with former White House intern Monica Lewinski. Some questioned America's moral right to bomb Iraq, while others demanded that this time the US do the job properly and get rid of Saddam Hussein.

But by doing so the USA and Britain have violated the UN Charter according to which: "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations." [ ]

Many political leaders doubt the necessity to preserve the UNO as there were drastic actions made by it. I think that the main reason for it is that the USA is the main financial source of the UNO and the latter in its turn is not willing to lose it.

In some way, my work can be continued as the events that happen in the world change the situation greatly. The future will show whether the UNO will be preserved or whether it’ll lose its unique character.

REFERENCES
1. Basic Facts about the UN. Sales No E.95.1.31;
2. Bush G., Scowcroft B. Why We didn’t Remove Saddam. Times, June 21, 1998;
3. Contreras Joseph, Watson Russel. Saddam Old Tricks. News Week, June 15,

1998;
4. Documents of the United Nations Department of Public Information;
5. Dr. Jan Azud Csc. The Peaceful Settlement of Disputes and the UN.

Bratislava: Publishing House of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, 1970;
6. Inside UNSCOM: The Inspector. Transcript of interview with Charles

Duelfer, Deputy Chairman of the UN Special Commission to Iraq.;
7. Iraq Bars UN Inspection Teams From Searching For Weapons. Copyright

1998. The Associated Press.;
8. Malt Bill G. Parade of the Dead Babies. Times. August 7, 1998;
9. Nelan Bruce W. Selling the War Badly. Times, March 2, 1998;
10. Osmanczyk Edmund Jan. The Encyclopedia of the United Nations and

International Relations. 2nd ed. New York: Taylor and Francis, 1990;
11. Peiser A., Serber M. U.S. History and Government. New York: Asmo School

Publications, Inc., 1992;
12. Ritter Leaves Baghdad After Weapons Inspections. CNN News Release.

March 10, 1998;
13. Saddam Hussein Freezes co-operation with UN inspectors. CNN News

Release. August 5, 1998;
14. Scott Ritter Testifies In Senate. CNN News Release. September 4, 1998;
15. The UN Charter;
16. The World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: Field Enterprises, Inc.
17. U.S. Reacts Sternly to Iraq’s Rebuff of Inspectors. CNN News Release,

December 9, 1998;
18. U.S., Britain Bombard Iraq. CNN News Release, December 16, 1998;
19. United Nations Iraq-Kuwait observation mission;
20. Wedeman Ben “Iraqis protest, but against what?”;
21. Western Forces Pound Baghdad in Second, “Stronger” Assault. CNN News

Release, December 17, 1998;

Appendix A

CHARTER OF THE UN

PREAMBLE

WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

AND FOR THESE ENDS to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples,

HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS

Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations.
Appendix B

The specialized agencies
The International Labour Organization (ILO) formulates policies and programs to improve working conditions and employment opportunities, and defines international labour standards as guidelines for Governments;
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) works to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living, to improve agricultural productivity and food security, and to better the conditions of rural populations;
The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) promotes education for all cultural development, protection of the world's natural and cultural heritage, press freedom and communication;
The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinates programs aimed at solving health problems and the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health: it works in areas such as immunization, health education and the provision of essential drugs;
The World Bank group provides loans and technical assistance to developing countries to reduce poverty and advance sustainable economic growth;
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) facilitates international monetary cooperation and financial stability, and provides a permanent forum for consultation, advice and assistance on financial issues;
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets international standards necessary for the safety, security, efficiency and regularity of air transport, and serves as the medium for cooperation in all areas of civil aviation;
The Universal Postal Union (UPU) establishes international regulations for the organization and improvement of postal services, provides technical assistance and promotes cooperation in postal matters;
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) fosters international cooperation for the improvement and use of telecommunications of all kinds, coordinates usage of radio and TV frequencies, promotes safety measures and conducts research;
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) promotes scientific research on the atmosphere and on climate change, and facilitates the global exchange of meteorological data and information;
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) works to improve international shipping procedures, encourages the highest standards in marine safety, and seeks to prevent marine pollution from ships;
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) promotes international protection of intellectual property and fosters cooperation on copyrights, trademarks, industrial designs and patents;
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) mobilizes financial resources for better food production and nutrition among the poor in developing countries;
The UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) promotes the industrial advancement of developing countries through technical assistance, advisory services and training;
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), an autonomous intergovernmental organization under the aegis of the UN, works for the safe and peaceful uses of atomic energy;
The UN and the World Trade Organization (WTO), the major entity overseeing international trade, cooperate in assisting developing countries' exports through the Geneva-based International Trade Centre.
Appendix C

"I want an understanding that will help my mission and make it successful"

Kofi Annan

United Nations Secretary General

Kofi Atta Annan, current Secretary General of the United Nations, is a native of Ghana -- at the time of his birth, still a British colony called the Gold Coast. He was born April 8, 1938, in Kumasi, the descendant of a prominent family of paramount chieftains of the Fante people.. Annan began his education at a Ghanaian university, then completed a degree in economics at Macalester College in St. Paul, Minn. He pursued graduate studies in Geneva at the Institut Universitaire de Hautes Etudes
Internationales. Again in the United States, Annan earned an M.S. in management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

By 1971, Annan had joined the United Nations.

His experience includes positions as Assistant Secretary General for
Program Planning, Budget and Finance, head of human resources and security coordinator, director of the budget, chief of personnel for the High
Commission for Refugees and administrative officer for the Economic
Commission for Africa.

He was named Under Secretary General for Peacekeeping Operations on
March 1, 1993. In the peacekeeping post he did, however, take on a number of delicate and complex jobs. He was sent to Iraq to negotiate the release of hostages and the safe transport of a half-million Asian workers who had become stranded in that area. As representative of the UN Secretary General in Bosnia., he negotiated his way among the four powers who had intervened in Bosnia -- the United States, Britain, France and Russia.

On the evening of December 13, 1996, Annan was named Secretary General of the United Nations -- the first black African to hold the job.

In the future, Annan will grapple with the problem of gaining support for the United Nations from the organisation's sceptics, especially the
U.S. Congress.
Appendix D

Appendix E

The United Nations was established in the aftermath of a devastating war to help stabilize international relations and give peace a more secure foundation.

The Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded five times to the United
Nations and its organizations.
Appendix F

Country Profile

Appendix G

Saddam Hussein

President of Iraq

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[1] Blitzkrieg (Ger.) – lightning war, traced back to WW II

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Years of UN peacekeeping efforts

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